Amanda Claridge Rome Oxford Archaeological Guides Free Download Updated

Amanda Claridge Rome Oxford Archaeological Guides Free Download

Roman temple in Rome, Italy

Pantheon

Pantheon Shown inside Rome
The location of the church today Click on the map to come across marker.
Location	Regio IX Circus Flaminius
Coordinates	41°53′55″Northward 12°28′36″E  /  41.8986°N 12.4768°E  / 41.8986; 12.4768
Type	Roman temple
History
Builder	Trajan, Hadrian
Founded	113–125 AD (current building)

The Pantheon (, ;^[one] Latin: Pantheum,^{[nb 1]} from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheion, "[temple] of all the gods") is a former Roman temple and since the year 609 a Cosmic church (Basilica di Santa Maria ad Martyres or Basilica of St. Mary and the Martyrs), in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – fourteen Advertizement). It was rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated c. 126 AD. Its date of construction is uncertain, because Hadrian chose not to inscribe the new temple just rather to retain the inscription of Agrippa's older temple, which had burned down.^[2]

The building is cylindrical with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment. A rectangular foyer links the porch to the rotunda, which is nether a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the heaven. Almost 2 one thousand years later it was built, the Pantheon'southward dome is still the world'south largest unreinforced concrete dome.^[3] The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43 metres (142 ft).^[4]

It is ane of the best-preserved of all Ancient Roman buildings, in large part because information technology has been in continuous use throughout its history and, since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been in use as a church dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs" (Latin: Sancta Maria advert Martyres) just informally known every bit "Santa Maria Rotonda".^[5] The square in front of the Pantheon is chosen Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a state holding, managed by Italian republic's Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio. In 2013, it was visited by over half-dozen million people.

The Pantheon's large round domed cella, with a conventional temple portico front, was unique in Roman compages. Even so, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, and has been copied many times by later architects.^[6]

Etymology

The interior of the Pantheon

The name "Pantheon" is from the Ancient Greek "Pantheion" (Πάνθειον) meaning "of, relating to, or mutual to all the gods": (pan- / "παν-" meaning "all" + theion / "θεῖον"= meaning "of or sacred to a god").^[7] Cassius Dio, a Roman senator who wrote in Greek, speculated that the name comes either from the statues of many gods placed around this building, or from the resemblance of the dome to the heavens.^[8] His dubiety strongly suggests that "Pantheon" (or Pantheum) was merely a nickname, not the formal name of the building.^[9] In fact, the concept of a pantheon dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The just definite pantheon recorded before than Agrippa'due south was at Antioch in Syrian arab republic, though it is just mentioned past a 6th-century source.^[10] Ziegler tried to collect evidence of pantheons, just his listing consists of simple dedications "to all the gods" or "to the Twelve Gods", which are not necessarily true pantheons in the sense of a temple housing a cult that literally worships all the gods.^[xi]

Godfrey and Hemsoll point out that ancient authors never refer to Hadrian'due south Pantheon with the word aedes, every bit they practise with other temples, and the Severan inscription carved on the architrave uses simply "Pantheum," not "Aedes Panthei" (temple of all the gods).^[12] It seems highly meaning that Dio does not quote the simplest caption for the proper name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods.^[13] In fact, Livy wrote that information technology had been decreed that temple buildings (or peradventure temple cellae) should just be dedicated to single divinities, so that it would be clear who would be offended if, for instance, the building were struck by lightning, and because it was only advisable to offering cede to a specific deity (27.25.7–ten).^[14] Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon "need non denote a particular group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods, since information technology could well accept had other meanings. ... Certainly the discussion pantheus or pantheos, could exist applicative to private deities. ... Begetting in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος (theios) need non hateful 'of a god' but could hateful 'superhuman', or even 'excellent'."^[12]

Since the French Revolution, when the church building of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris was deconsecrated and turned into the secular monument chosen the Panthéon of Paris, the generic term pantheon has sometimes been practical to other buildings in which illustrious expressionless are honoured or buried.^[i]

History

Flooring plan of the Pantheon from Georg Dehio/Gustav von Bezold: Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. Stuttgart: Verlag der Cotta'schen Buchhandlung 1887–1901.

Ancient

In the aftermath of the Boxing of Actium (31 BC), Marcus Agrippa started an impressive building program: the Pantheon was a part of the circuitous created by him on his own property in the Campus Martius in 29–19 BC, which included three buildings aligned from due south to north: the Baths of Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, and the Pantheon.^[fifteen] It seems probable that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippa's sacra privata, not aedes publicae (public temples).^[16] The onetime would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose (Ziolkowski contends that it was originally the Temple of Mars in Campo)^[17] in such a relatively short period of fourth dimension.^[18]

Information technology had long been thought that the electric current building was congenital by Agrippa, with afterwards alterations undertaken, and this was in part because of the Latin inscription on the front end of the temple^[19] which reads:

The Pantheon dome. The coffered dome has a fundamental oculus every bit the main source of natural light.

Thou·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT

or in full, "M[arcus] Agrippa 50[ucii] f[ilius] co[due north]due south[ul] tertium fecit," pregnant "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made [this building] when delegate for the third fourth dimension."^[20] However, archaeological excavations accept shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan, four years after information technology was destroyed by fire for the second time (Oros. seven.12). She reexamined Herbert Bloch'southward 1959 paper, which is responsible for the ordinarily maintained Hadrianic date, and maintains that he should not have excluded all of the Trajanic-era bricks from his brick-stamp study. Her statement is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyer's argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan'south architect, was the obvious builder.^[21]

View of the Pantheon in Rome, including the physical dome

The form of Agrippa's Pantheon is debated. As a result of excavations in the late 19th century, archeologist Rodolfo Lanciani concluded that Agrippa's Pantheon was oriented so that it faced southward, in contrast with the current layout that faces north, and that it had a shortened T-shaped plan with the archway at the base of the "T". This description was widely accustomed until the late 20th century. While more than recent archaeological diggings have suggested that Agrippa'due south edifice might have had a circular form with a triangular porch, and information technology might have also faced north, much like the afterward rebuildings, Ziolkowski complains that their conclusions were based entirely on surmise; according to him, they did non find any new datable material, yet they attributed everything they constitute to the Agrippan phase, failing to account for the fact that Domitian, known for his enthusiasm for building and known to have restored the Pantheon afterwards 80 Ad, might well have been responsible for everything they found. Ziolkowski argues that Lanciani's initial assessment is all the same supported by all of the finds to date, including theirs; furthermore he expresses skepticism because the edifice they draw, "a single edifice composed of a huge pronaos and a round cella of the same diameter, linked by a relatively narrow and very brusque passage (much thinner than the current intermediate block), has no known parallels in classical architecture and would become confronting everything we know of Roman design principles in full general and of Augustan architecture in particular."^[22]

The just passages referring to the ornament of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Pliny the Elder's Natural History. From him we know that "the capitals, as well, of the pillars, which were placed by G. Agrippa in the Pantheon, are fabricated of Syracusan bronze",^[23] that "the Pantheon of Agrippa has been decorated by Diogenes of Athens, and the Caryatides, by him, which course the columns of that temple, are looked upon equally masterpieces of excellence: the same, too, with the statues that are placed upon the roof,"^[24] and that i of Cleopatra's pearls was cut in half so that each half "might serve equally pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome".^[25]

The Augustan Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a huge burn in the twelvemonth 80 Advert. Domitian rebuilt the Pantheon, which was burnt again in 110 Advert.^[26]

The degree to which the decorative scheme should exist credited to Hadrian's architects is uncertain. Finished past Hadrian but non claimed every bit 1 of his works, it used the text of the original inscription on the new façade (a common practice in Hadrian's rebuilding projects all over Rome; the only building on which Hadrian put his own name was the Temple to the Deified Trajan).^[27] How the building was actually used is not known. The Historia Augusta says that Hadrian defended the Pantheon (amongst other buildings) in the name of the original builder (Hadr. nineteen.ten), just the current inscription could non be a copy of the original; it provides no data every bit to who Agrippa's foundation was dedicated to, and, in Ziolkowski's opinion, information technology was highly unlikely that in 25 BC Agrippa would have presented himself as "consul tertium." On coins, the aforementioned words, "M. Agrippa L.f cos. tertium", were the ones used to refer to him after his expiry; consul tertium serving equally "a sort of posthumous cognomen ex virtute, a remembrance of the fact that, of all the men of his generation apart from Augustus himself, he was the only one to hold the consulship thrice."^[28] Whatever the cause of the amending of the inscription might have been, the new inscription reflects the fact that there was a change in the building's purpose.^[29]

Cassius Dio, a Graeco-Roman senator, consul and author of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing approximately 75 years after the Pantheon's reconstruction, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa rather than Hadrian. Dio appears to be the only near-contemporaneous writer to mention the Pantheon. Even by the year 200, there was uncertainty almost the origin of the building and its purpose:

Agrippa finished the construction of the edifice called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received amidst the images which busy information technology the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; simply my own stance of the name is that, considering of its vaulted roof, information technology resembles the heavens.

—Cassius Dio History of Rome 53.27.2

In 202, the building was repaired by the articulation emperors Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (fully Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), for which at that place is another, smaller inscription on the architrave of the façade, under the same larger text.^{[30] [31]} This now-barely legible inscription reads:

IMP · CAES · L · SEPTIMIVS · SEVERVS · PIVS · PERTINAX · ARABICVS · ADIABENICVS · PARTHICVS · MAXIMVS · PONTIF · MAX · TRIB · POTEST · X · IMP · 11 · COS · Iii · P · P · PROCOS  ET

IMP · CAES · M · AVRELIVS · ANTONINVS · PIVS · FELIX · AVG · TRIB · POTEST · V · COS · PROCOS · PANTHEVM · VETVSTATE · CORRVPTVM · CVM · OMNI · CVLTV · RESTITVERVNT

In English, this means:

Emp[eror] Caes[ar] 50[ucius] Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax, victorious in Arabia, victor of Adiabene, the greatest victor in Parthia, Pontif[ex] Max[imus], 10 times tribune, 11 times proclaimed emperor, 3 times consul, P[ater] P[atriae], proconsul, and

Emp[eror] Caes[ar] M[arcus] Aurelius Antoninus Pius Felix Aug[ustus], five times tribune, consul, proconsul, have carefully restored the Pantheon ruined past age.^[32]

Medieval

An 1836 view of the Pantheon past Jakob Alt, showing twin bell towers, in place from early 17th to late 19th centuries.

In 609, the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian church and consecrated it to St. Mary and the Martyrs on 13 May 609: "Some other Pope, Boniface, asked the same [Emperor Phocas, in Constantinople] to order that in the old temple called the Pantheon, after the pagan filth was removed, a church should be made, to the holy virgin Mary and all the martyrs, so that the commemoration of the saints would take place henceforth where not gods only demons were formerly worshipped."^[33] Twenty-eight cartloads of holy relics of martyrs were said to accept been removed from the catacombs and placed in a porphyry basin beneath the high altar.^[34] On its consecration, Boniface placed an icon of the Mother of God as 'Panagia Hodegetria' (All Holy Directress) inside the new sanctuary.^[35]

The building'southward consecration as a church building saved it from the abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation that befell the majority of aboriginal Rome'southward buildings during the early on medieval menstruum. However, Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in July 663:

Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church building [of the blessed Mary], which at once was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in award of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the identify of all the martyrs; and he took away from at that place the statuary tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople.

Much fine external marble has been removed over the centuries – for example, capitals from some of the pilasters are in the British Museum.^[36] Ii columns were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abutted the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early 17th century, Urban Viii Barberini tore abroad the bronze ceiling of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile with the famous twin towers (oftentimes wrongly attributed to Bernini^[37]) called "the ass's ears",^[38] which were not removed until the belatedly 19th century.^[39] The merely other loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa's inscription. The marble interior has largely survived, although with extensive restoration.

Renaissance

Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been the site of several important burials. Among those cached at that place are the painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the builder Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best-known is the Proclamation by Melozzo da Forlì. Filippo Brunelleschi, among other architects, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.

Pope Urban 8 (1623 to 1644) ordered the bronze ceiling of the Pantheon's portico melted downwards. Most of the statuary was used to brand bombards for the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining corporeality used by the Apostolic Camera for diverse other works. It is also said that the statuary was used by Bernini in creating his famous baldachin to a higher place the high chantry of St. Peter's Basilica, merely, according to at least one skillful, the Pope'due south accounts land that about xc% of the bronze was used for the cannon, and that the statuary for the baldachin came from Venice.^[41] Concerning this, an anonymous contemporary Roman satirist quipped in a pasquinade (a publicly posted poem) that quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini ("What the barbarians did non practise the Barberinis [Urban Eight'southward family unit proper name] did").

In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false windows was "restored," but bore little resemblance to the original. In the early decades of the 20th century, a piece of the original, every bit could exist reconstructed from Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in i of the panels.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Mod

2 kings of Italian republic are buried in the Pantheon: Vittorio Emanuele 2 and Umberto I, as well equally Umberto'due south Queen, Margherita. It was supposed to be the final resting place for the Monarchs of Italy of Firm of Savoy, merely the Monarchy was abolished in 1946 and the republican authorities have refused to grant burial to the former kings who died in exile (Victor Emmanuel Iii and Umberto II). The Organization of the National Found for the Honor Guard of the Purple Tombs of the Pantheon, which mounts guards of award at the royal tombs of the Pantheon, was originally chartered by the Firm of Savoy and subsequently operating with authorization of the Italian Democracy, mounts as guards of accolade in front end of the purple tombs.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The Pantheon is in use every bit a Catholic church building, and as such, visitors are asked to keep an appropriate level of deference. Masses are historic in that location on Sundays and holy days of obligation. Weddings are also held in that location from time to time.

Primal deaconry

On 23 July 1725, the Pantheon was established every bit Cardinal-deaconry of S. Maria ad Martyres, i.e. a titular church for a primal-deacon.

On 26 May 1929, this deaconry was suppressed to institute the Cardinal Deaconry of S. Apollinare alle Terme Neroniane-Alessandrine.^{[ citation needed ]}

Construction

Portico

The building was originally approached past a flight of steps. Afterward structure raised the level of the basis leading to the portico, eliminating these steps.^[5]

The pediment was decorated with relief sculpture, probably of golden bronze. Holes marking the location of clamps that held the sculpture propose that its design was likely an eagle within a wreath; ribbons extended from the wreath into the corners of the pediment.^[42]

On the intermediate cake between the portico and the rotunda, the remains of a second pediment suggests that existing portico is much shorter than originally intended. A portico aligned with the second pediment would fit columns with shafts l Roman feet (14.8 metres) tall and capitals ten Roman feet tall (three metres), whereas the existing portico has shafts 40 Roman feet (11.9 metres) tall and capitals eight Roman feet (2.four metres) tall.^{[43] [44]}

Mark Wilson Jones has attempted to explain the design adjustments by suggesting that, one time the college pediment had been constructed, the required l foot columns failed to go far (possibly as a upshot of logistical difficulties).^[43] The builders and then had to make some awkward adjustments to fit the shorter columns and pediments. Rabun Taylor has noted that, even if the taller columns were delivered, basic construction constraints may accept prevented their use.^[44] Assuming that each column would first be laid on the floor next to its pediment before being pivoted upright (using something like an A-frame), there would exist a space requirement of a cavalcade-length on one side of the pediment, and at to the lowest degree a column-length on the opposite side for the pivoting equipment and ropes. With l foot columns "there was no manner to sequence the erection of [the columns] without creating a hopeless snarl. The shafts were simply too long to exist positioned on the floor in a workable configuration, regardless of sequence."^[44] Specifically, the innermost row of columns would be blocked past the principal body of the temple, and in the later stages of construction some already-erected columns would inevitably obstruct the erection of further columns.

However, information technology has also been argued that the calibration of the portico was related to the urban design of the space in front end of the temple.^[45]

The grayness granite columns that were actually used in the Pantheon'due south pronaos were quarried in Egypt at Mons Claudianus in the eastern mountains. Each was xi.9 metres (39 ft) tall, ane.5 metres (four ft 11 in) in diameter, and 60 tonnes (59 long tons; 66 curt tons) in weight.^[46] These were dragged more than 100 km (62 miles) from the quarry to the river on wooden sledges. They were floated by barge downward the Nile River when the water level was loftier during the jump floods, and and so transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean Sea to the Roman port of Ostia. There, they were transferred dorsum onto barges and pulled up the Tiber River to Rome.^[47] After being unloaded nearly the Mausoleum of Augustus, the site of the Pantheon was nevertheless well-nigh 700 metres away.^[48] Thus, information technology was necessary to either drag them or to move them on rollers to the structure site.

In the walls at the back of the Pantheon's portico are two huge niches, perhaps intended for statues of Augustus Caesar and Agrippa.

The big statuary doors to the cella, measuring 4.45 metres (xiv.6 ft) wide by 7.53 metres (24.7 ft) high, are the oldest in Rome.^[49] These were thought to be a 15th-century replacement for the original, mainly because they were deemed by gimmicky architects to exist too small for the door frames.^[l] Notwithstanding, analysis of the fusion technique confirmed that these are the original Roman doors,^[49] a rare example of Roman monumental bronze surviving, despite cleaning and the application of Christian motifs over the centuries.

Rotunda

Cross-section of the Pantheon showing how a 43.iii-metre diameter sphere fits under its dome.

The 4,535-tonne (four,463-long-ton; 4,999-short-ton) weight of the Roman concrete dome is concentrated on a band of voussoirs 9.i metres (xxx ft) in bore that form the oculus, while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by 8 barrel vaults in the six.4-metre-thick (21 ft) drum wall into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to i.2 metres (3.9 ft) around the oculus.^[51] The materials used in the physical of the dome besides vary. At its thickest bespeak, the aggregate is travertine, and so terracotta tiles, so at the very meridian, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones. At the very top, where the dome would be at its weakest and vulnerable to plummet, the oculus lightens the load.^[52]

Axle in the dome of the Pantheon

No tensile test results are available on the concrete used in the Pantheon; nevertheless, Cowan discussed tests on ancient concrete from Roman ruins in Great socialist people's libyan arab jamahiriya, which gave a compressive forcefulness of 20 MPa (ii,900 psi). An empirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 1.47 MPa (213 psi) for this specimen.^[51] Finite element assay of the structure by Marker and Hutchison^[53] institute a maximum tensile stress of only 0.128 MPa (eighteen.5 psi) at the signal where the dome joins the raised outer wall.^[3]

The stresses in the dome were found to be essentially reduced past the use of successively less dumbo aggregate stones, such every bit pocket-sized pots or pieces of pumice, in higher layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that, if normal weight concrete had been used throughout, the stresses in the curvation would have been some 80% greater. Hidden chambers engineered inside the rotunda form a sophisticated structural system.^[54] This reduced the weight of the roof, every bit did the oculus eliminating the apex.^[55]

The top of the rotunda wall features a serial of brick relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices – for instance, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside – but all these arches were hidden by marble facing on the interior and possibly past stone revetment or stucco on the exterior.

The elevation to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circumvolve are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (or, a 43.3-m sphere could fit within the interior).^[56] These dimensions brand more sense when expressed in aboriginal Roman units of measurement: The dome spans 150 Roman anxiety; the oculus is thirty Roman anxiety in diameter; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high.^[57] The Pantheon still holds the record for the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. It is as well substantially larger than earlier domes.^[58] Information technology is the only masonry dome to not require reinforcement. All other extant ancient domes were either designed with tie-rods, bondage and banding or accept been retrofitted with such devices to prevent collapse.^[59]

Though often fatigued as a free-standing building, at that place was a building at its rear which abutted information technology. While this building helped buttress the rotunda, there was no interior passage from one to the other.^[60]

Interior

External video
The Pantheon, Rome, (viii:31) Smarthistory

Upon entry, visitors are greeted by an enormous rounded room covered by the dome. The oculus at the height of the dome was never covered, allowing rainfall through the ceiling and onto the flooring. Considering of this, the interior floor is equipped with drains and has been built with an incline of about thirty centimetres (12 in) to promote water runoff.^{[61] [62]}

The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens.^[56] The oculus at the dome'south apex and the entry door are the only natural sources of light in the interior. Throughout the day, light from the oculus moves effectually this space in a reverse sundial event: marking fourth dimension with calorie-free rather than shadow.^[63] The oculus also offers cooling and ventilation; during storms, a drainage system beneath the flooring handles rain falling through the oculus.

The dome features sunken panels (coffers), in five rings of 28. This evenly spaced layout was hard to achieve and, it is presumed, had symbolic significant, either numerical, geometric, or lunar.^{[64] [65]} In antiquity, the coffers may accept contained bronze rosettes symbolising the starry firmament.^[66]

Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the interior blueprint. The checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with the concentric circles of square coffers in the dome. Each zone of the interior, from floor to ceiling, is subdivided according to a different scheme. As a result, the interior decorative zones do not line up. The overall effect is immediate viewer orientation according to the major centrality of the building, even though the cylindrical space topped by a hemispherical dome is inherently cryptic. This discordance has not ever been appreciated, and the cranium level was redone according to Neoclassical taste in the 18th century.^[67]

Catholic additions

Church of St. Mary of the Martyrs
Chiesa Santa Maria dei Martiri Sancta Maria ad Martyres
The tomb of Raphael
Religion
Affiliation	Roman Catholic
Ecclesiastical or organizational status	Minor basilica, Rectory church
Leadership	Msgr. Daniele Micheletti
Yr consecrated	13 May 609
Location
Location	Rome, Italy
Geographic coordinates	41°53′55″North 12°28′36″Due east  /  41.8986°N 12.4768°E  / 41.8986; 12.4768 Coordinates: 41°53′55″Northward 12°28′36″E  /  41.8986°N 12.4768°E  / 41.8986; 12.4768
Architecture
Style	Roman
Completed	126
Specifications
Direction of façade	North
Length	84 metres (276 ft)
Width	58 metres (190 ft)
Top (max)	58 metres (190 ft)
Website
Official website

The present high altars and the apses were deputed past Pope Clement Eleven (1700–1721) and designed past Alessandro Specchi. Enshrined on the apse above the high altar is a 7th-century Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child, given by Phocas to Pope Boniface Four on the occasion of the dedication of the Pantheon for Christian worship on 13 May 609. The choir was added in 1840, and was designed by Luigi Poletti.

The offset niche to the right of the entrance holds a Madonna of the Girdle and St Nicholas of Bari (1686) painted by an unknown artist. The first chapel on the right, the Chapel of the Annunciation, has a fresco of the Annunciation attributed to Melozzo da Forlì. On the left side is a canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St Agnes (1645–1650). On the right wall is the Incredulity of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi.

The second niche has a 15th-century fresco of the Tuscan school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the second chapel is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II (died 1878). It was originally defended to the Holy Spirit. A competition was held to make up one's mind which builder should design it. Giuseppe Sacconi participated, but lost – he would afterwards design the tomb of Umberto I in the opposite chapel.

Manfredo Manfredi won the contest, and started piece of work in 1885. The tomb consists of a big bronze plaque surmounted by a Roman hawkeye and the arms of the house of Savoy. The gold lamp higher up the tomb burns in honor of Victor Emmanuel 3, who died in exile in 1947.

The third niche has a sculpture by Il Lorenzone of St Anne and the Blessed Virgin. In the third chapel is a 15th-century painting of the Umbrian school, The Madonna of Mercy between St Francis and St John the Baptist. Information technology is also known as the Madonna of the Railing, because it originally hung in the niche on the left-hand side of the portico, where it was protected past a railing. It was moved to the Chapel of the Annunciation, and then to its present position sometime after 1837. The statuary epigram commemorated Pope Clement XI's restoration of the sanctuary. On the right wall is the sheet Emperor Phocas presenting the Pantheon to Pope Boniface 4 (1750) by an unknown. There are iii memorial plaques in the floor, one conmmemorating a Gismonda written in the vernacular. The final niche on the right side has a statue of St. Anastasius (Sant'Anastasio) (1725) by Bernardino Cametti.^[68]

On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assumption (1638) past Andrea Camassei. The outset chapel on the left, the Chapel of St Joseph in the Holy Land, is the chapel of the Confraternity of the Virtuosi al Pantheon , a confraternity of artists and musicians formed by a 16th-century canon, Desiderio da Segni, to ensure that worship was maintained in the chapel.

The first members were, among others, Antonio da Sangallo the younger, Jacopo Meneghino, Giovanni Mangone, Zuccari, Domenico Beccafumi, and Flaminio Vacca. The confraternity continued to describe members from the elite of Rome's artists and architects, and among later members we find Bernini, Cortona, Algardi, and many others. The institution still exists, and is at present called the Academia Ponteficia di Belle Arti (The Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts), based in the palace of the Cancelleria. The altar in the chapel is covered with false marble. On the chantry is a statue of St Joseph and the Holy Child by Vincenzo de' Rossi.

To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza, one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief on the left, Dream of St Joseph, is by Paolo Benaglia, and the 1 on the right, Residue during the flying from Egypt, is by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th-century canvases, from left to correct: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Begetter by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi; and Eritrean Sibyl past Giovanni Andrea Carlone.

The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenzo Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of Baldassare Peruzzi, derived from a plaster portrait by Giovanni Duprè. The tomb of King Umberto I and his wife Margherita di Savoia is in the next chapel. The chapel was originally dedicated to St Michael the Archangel, and then to St. Thomas the Apostle. The present design is by Giuseppe Sacconi, completed after his death by his pupil Guido Cirilli. The tomb consists of a slab of alabaster mounted in gilded statuary. The frieze has allegorical representations of Generosity, by Eugenio Maccagnani, and Munificence, by Arnaldo Zocchi. The majestic tombs are maintained past the National Institute of Honour Guards to the Majestic Tombs, founded in 1878. They likewise organize watch guards at the tombs. The altar with the royal arms is past Cirilli.

The tertiary niche holds the mortal remains – his Ossa et cineres, "Bones and ashes", equally the inscription on the sarcophagus says – of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée, Maria Bibbiena is cached to the right of his sarcophagus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus was given by Pope Gregory Xvi, and its inscription reads ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI / RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, meaning "Here lies Raphael, by whom the great mother of all things (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and while he was dying, herself to die". The epigraph was written by Pietro Bembo.

The present organisation is from 1811, designed past Antonio Muñoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe Fabris. The 2 plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena and Annibale Carracci. Backside the tomb is the statue known every bit the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) so named because she rests one human foot on a bedrock. It was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto in 1524.

In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius Seven the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) fabricated by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a portrait of Primal Agostino Rivarola. The terminal niche on this side has a statue of St. Evasius (Sant'Evasio) (1727) past Francesco Moderati.^[68]

Gallery

• 

  Pantheon during a cloudy day

• 

  The dome of the Pantheon seen from the hill of Janiculum

• 

  The Pantheon past night

• 

  Pantheon 2013

• 

  Sideways view across portico

• 

  Portico roof from below

• 

  Dome by dark

• 

  Chantry

Influence

As the best-preserved example of an Ancient Roman monumental building, the Pantheon has been enormously influential in Western architecture from at least the Renaissance on;^[69] starting with Brunelleschi's 42-metre (138 ft) dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, completed in 1436.^[lxx]

Among the most notable versions are the church of Santa Maria Assunta (1664) in Ariccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, which followed his work restoring the Roman original,^[71] Belle Island House (1774) in England and Thomas Jefferson's library at the Academy of Virginia, The Rotunda (1817–1826).^[71] Others include the Rotunda of Mosta in Malta (1833).^[72] Other notable replicas, such as The Rotunda (New York) (1818), exercise not survive.^[73]

The portico-and-dome form of the Pantheon can be detected in many buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries; numerous government and public buildings, city halls, university buildings, and public libraries echo its structure.^[74]

See too

• Romanaian Athenaeum
• Panthéon, Paris
• Pantheon, Moscow (never built)
• Manchester Primal Library
• Volkshalle higher (never built)
• The Rotunda (Academy of Virginia) Us
• Auditorium of Southeast University, Southeast Academy, Mainland china

Full general:

• List of Ancient Roman temples
• List of the oldest buildings in the earth
• List of Roman domes
• History of Roman and Byzantine domes
• Listing of largest domes
• List of tallest domes
• Roman engineering
• Roman applied science

Notes

1. ^ Although the spelling Pantheon is standard in English language, just Pantheum is establish in classical Latin; see, for example, Pliny, Natural History 36.38: "Agrippas Pantheum decoravit Diogenes Atheniensis". See as well Oxford Latin Dictionary, s.five. "Pantheum"; Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "Pantheon": "postal service-classical Latin pantheon a temple consecrated to all the gods (6th cent.; compare classical Latin pantheum)".

Footnotes

1. ^ ^{a b} "Pantheon". Oxford English language Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford Academy Press. December 2008.
2. ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 12–13
3. ^ ^{a b} Moore, David (1999). "The Pantheon". romanconcrete.com . Retrieved September 26, 2011.
4. ^ Rasch 1985, p. 119
5. ^ ^{a b} MacDonald 1976, p. eighteen
6. ^ Summerson (1980), 38–39, 38 quoted
7. ^ Oxford English Dictionary
8. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman Histories 53.27, referenced in MacDonald 1976, p. 76
9. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). "Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School at Rome. 62: 271. doi:x.1017/S0068246200010084.
10. ^ Thomas, Edmund (2004). "From the Pantheon of the Gods to the Pantheon of Rome". In Richard Wrigley; Matthew Craske (eds.). Pantheons; Transformations of a Awe-inspiring Thought. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 17. ISBN978-0-7546-0808-0.
11. ^ Ziegler, Konrat (1949). "Pantheion". Pauly's Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft: neue Bearbeitung. Vol. 18. Stuttgart. pp. 697–747.
12. ^ ^{a b} Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). "The Pantheon: Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig; Anthony Rex (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (Monograph No eight ed.). Oxford Academy Committee for Archaeology. p. 199.
13. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). "Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British Schoolhouse at Rome. 62: 265. doi:x.1017/S0068246200010084.
14. ^ Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). "The Pantheon: Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig; Anthony King (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire (Monograph No 8 ed.). Oxford University Committee for Archæology. p. 198.
15. ^ Dio, Cassius. "Roman History". p. 53.23.3.
16. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1999). Dictionary topographicum urbis Romae four. Rome: Quasar. pp. 55–56.
17. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). "Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School at Rome. 62: 261–277. doi:10.1017/S0068246200010084.
18. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). "Was Agrippa'south Pantheon the Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School at Rome. 62: 275. doi:10.1017/S0068246200010084.
19. ^ Thomas 1997, p. 165
20. ^ "Pantheon". Romereborn.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2013-03-12 .
21. ^ Hetland, Lise (November ix–12, 2006). Graßhoff, G; Heinzelmann, Thousand; Wäfler, Chiliad (eds.). "Zur Datierung des Pantheon". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions Contributions to the Conference. Bern.
22. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (November nine–12, 2006). Graßhoff, 1000; Heinzelmann, One thousand; Wäfler, 1000 (eds.). "What did Agrippa's Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an One-time Question". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference. Bern: 31–34.
23. ^ Pliny, The Elder. "The Natural History". p. 34.7.
24. ^ Pliny, The Elderberry. "The Natural History". p. 36.iv.
25. ^ Pliny, The Elderberry. "The Natural History". p. 9.58.
26. ^ Kleiner 2007, p. 182
27. ^ Ramage & Ramage 2009, p. 236
28. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (November 9–12, 2006). Graßhoff, G; Heinzelmann, Thousand; Wäfler, M (eds.). "What did Agrippa's Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an Old Question". The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference. Bern: 39.
29. ^ Ziolkowski, Adam (2007). Leone; Palombi; Walker (eds.). Res Bene Gestae: Ricerche di storia urbana su Roma antica in onore di Eva Margreta Steinby. Rome: Quasar.
30. ^ Luigi Piale; Mariano Vasi (1851). New Guide of Rome and the Environs According to Vasi and Nibby: Containing a Description of the Monuments, Galleries, Churches [etc.] Advisedly Revised and Enlarged, with an Account of the Latest Antique Researches. 50. Piale. p. 272.
31. ^ Giuseppe Melchiorri (1834). Paolo Badalì (ed.). "Nuova guida metodica di Roma eastward suoi contorni – Parte Terza ("New Methodic Guide to Rome and Its Suburbs – 3rd Role")". Archivio viaggiatori italiani a roma e nel lazio – Istituto Nazionale Di Studi Romani (in Italian). Tuscia University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
32. ^ Emmanuel Rodocanachi (1920). Les monuments antiques de Rome encore existants: les ponts, les murs, les voies, les aqueducs, les enceintes de Rome, les palais, les temples, les arcs (in French). Libr. Hachette. p. 192.
33. ^ John the Deacon, Monumenta Germaniae Historia (1848) 7.8.xx, quoted in MacDonald 1976, p. 139
34. ^ Popes Boniface III-7 (archived copy) oce.catholic.com, accessed 11 Apr 2021
35. ^ Andrew J. Ekonomou. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes. Lexington books, Toronto, 2007
36. ^ British Museum Highlights Archived 2015-ten-27 at the Wayback Machine
37. ^ Mormando, Franco (2011). Bernini: His Life and His Rome. University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-53851-8 . Retrieved January three, 2012.
38. ^ DuTemple, Leslie A. (2003). The Pantheon . Minneapolis: Lerner Publns. p. 64. ISBN978-0-8225-0376-7 . Retrieved May 8, 2011. bernini pantheon towers.
39. ^ Marder 1991, p. 275
40. ^ Some other view of the interior by Panini (1735), Liechtenstein Museum, Vienna Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
41. ^ "Pantheon, The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome". Rodolpho Lanciani. Archived from the original on 2007-07-01.
42. ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 63, 141–142; Claridge 1998, p. 203
43. ^ ^{a b} Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 199–206
44. ^ ^{a b c} Taylor, Rabun (2003). Roman Builders, a written report in architectural process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–131. ISBN0521803349.
45. ^ MacDonald, William L. (1965). The Architecture of the Roman Empire, vol. i: An Introductory Study. Yale Academy Press. pp. 111–113. ISBN9780300028195.
46. ^ Parker, Freda. "The Pantheon – Rome – 126 AD". Monolithic. Archived from the original on 2009-05-26. Retrieved 2009-07-08 .
47. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 206–212
48. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Exterior, pp. 206–207
49. ^ ^{a b} Cinti et al. 2007, p. 29
50. ^ Claridge 1998, p. 204
51. ^ ^{a b} Cowan 1977, p. 56
52. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, p. 187, Principles of Roman Compages
53. ^ Mark & Hutchinson 1986
54. ^ MacDonald 1976, p. 33 "There are openings in it [the rotunda] here and there, at various levels, that give on to some of the many different chambers that honeycomb the rotunda construction, a honeycombing that is an integral part of a sophisticated engineering solution..."
55. ^ Moore, David (February 1993). "The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete". Due south Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. world wide web.romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
56. ^ ^{a b} Roth 1992, p. 36
57. ^ Claridge 1998, pp. 204–205
58. ^ Lancaster 2005, pp. 44–46
59. ^ Ottoni, Federica; Blasi, Carlo (March four, 2015). "Hooping as an Ancient Remedy for Conservation of Large Masonry Domes". International Journal of Architectural Heritage.
60. ^ MacDonald 1976, p. 34, Wilson-Jones 2003, p. 191
61. ^ "Roman Pantheon". www.rome.info . Retrieved 2018-11-07 .
62. ^ "Pantheon". history.com . Retrieved 2018-xi-07 .
63. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 182–184
64. ^ Lancaster 2005, p. 46
65. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 182–183.
66. ^ De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G.; Kirkpatrick, Diane (1991). Gardner's Art Through the Ages (9th ed.). Thomson/Wadsworth. p. 228. ISBN0-15-503769-2.
67. ^ Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The Interior, pp. 184–197
68. ^ ^{a b} Marder 1980, p. 35
69. ^ MacDonald 1976, pp. 94–132
70. ^ Rex 2000
71. ^ ^{a b} Summerson (1980), 38–39
72. ^ Schiavone, Michael J. (2009). Dictionary of Maltese Biographies Vol. ii Grand–Z. Pietà: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza. pp. 989–990. ISBN9789993291329.
73. ^ Gotham: A History of New York Metropolis to 1898. Oxford Academy Printing. 1998. p. 468.
74. ^ MacDonald, William Lloyd (2002). The Pantheon: Blueprint, Meaning, and Progeny. Harvard University Press. p. 94. ISBN9780674010192.

References

• Cinti, Siro; De Martino, Federico; Carandini, Andrea; De Carolis, Marco; Belardi, Giovanni (2007). Pantheon. Storia east Futuro / History and Future (in Italian). Rome, Italy: Gangemi Editore. ISBN978-88-492-1301-0.
• Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome. Oxford Archaeological Guides. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-288003-9.
• Cowan, Henry (1977). The Master Builders: : A History of Structural and Environmental Design From Ancient Arab republic of egypt to the Nineteenth Century. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN0-471-02740-5.
• Favro, Diane (2005). "Making Rome a World City". The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus. Cambridge Academy Printing. pp. 234–263. ISBN978-0-521-00393-3.
• Hetland, L. 1000. (2007). "Dating the Pantheon". Journal of Roman Archaeology. twenty (1): 95–112. doi:x.1017/S1047759400005328. ISSN 1047-7594. S2CID 162028301.
• Rex, Ross (2000). Brunelleschi'due south Dome. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN0-7011-6903-six.
• Kleiner, Fred S. (2007). A History of Roman Art. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN978-0-534-63846-seven.
• Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Construction in Purple Rome: Innovations in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Printing. ISBN0-521-84202-6.
• Loewenstein, Karl (1973). The Governance of Rome. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhof. ISBN978-90-247-1458-2.
• MacDonald, William 50. (1976). The Pantheon: Pattern, Meaning, and Progeny . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Academy Press. ISBN0-674-01019-1.
• Marder, Tod A. (1980). "Specchi's High Altar for the Pantheon and the Statues by Cametti and Moderati". The Burlington Magazine. The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd. 122 (922): 30–forty. JSTOR 879867.
• Marder, Tod A. (1991). "Alexander Seven, Bernini, and the Urban Setting of the Pantheon in the Seventeenth Century". The Journal of the Club of Architectural Historians. Society of Architectural Historians. 50 (iii): 273–292. doi:ten.2307/990615. JSTOR 990615.
• Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (1986). "On the structure of the Pantheon". Art Message. Higher Art Association. 68 (ane): 24–34. doi:10.2307/3050861. JSTOR 3050861.
• Ramage, Nancy H.; Ramage, Andrew (2009). Roman art : Romulus to Constantine (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, North.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-600097-6.
• Rasch, Jürgen (1985). "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion, Architectura". Architectura. 15: 117–139.
• Roth, Leland M. (1992). Agreement Architecture: Its Elements, History, And Meaning. Boulder: Westview Printing. ISBN0-06-438493-iv.
• Stamper, John W. (2005). The Architecture Of Roman Temples: The Republic To The Middle Empire. The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-81068-X.
• Summerson, John (1980), The Classical Linguistic communication of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN 0-500-20177-3
• Thomas, Edmund (1997). "The Architectural History of the Pantheon from Agrippa to Septimius Severus via Hadrian". Hephaistos. 15: 163–186.
• Wilson-Jones, Mark (2003). Principles of Roman Architecture. New Oasis: Yale University Printing. ISBN0-300-10202-X.

External links

• Official webpage from Vicariate of Rome website
• Pantheon Live Webcam, Alive streaming Video of the Pantheon
• Pantheon Rome, Virtual Panorama and photograph gallery
• Pantheon, article in Platner'due south Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
• Pantheon Rome vs Pantheon Paris
• Tomás García Salgado, "The geometry of the Pantheon's vault"
• Pantheon at Great Buildings/Architecture Week website
• Fine art & History Pantheon Archived 2010-eleven-24 at the Wayback Machine
• Summer solstice at the Pantheon
• Pantheon at Structurae
• Video Introduction to the Pantheon
• Panoramic Virtual Tour inside the Pantheon
• Loftier-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Pantheon | Art Atlas
• audio guide Pantheon Rome

Amanda Claridge Rome Oxford Archaeological Guides Free Download

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